HARDWOOD:-

In general, hardwood comes from a deciduous tree which loses its leaves annually and softwood comes from a conifer, which usually remains evergreen. Hardwoods tend to be slower growing, and are therefore usually more dense. Softwood trees are known as a gymnosperm.

Hardwood is not a technical description or category; it’s more of a nickname that’s usually used to distinguish “hardwoods” from “softwoods.” Of course, the nicknames have some truth. Hardwoods as a group are harder and denser than most softwoods. But the real distinction lies in the type of tree—or more specifically—the type of seed that hardwoods come from.

SOLID WOOD VS. HOLLOW WOOD:-

One of the most frequently made hollow wood structures are hollow core doors. Hollow core doors are much lighter than solid wood doors, cheaper and are easier to install. However, sound travels more freely through them, which can be a problem if the house is noisy or the occupants desire a lot of privacy. Also, hollow core doors should not be used as doors to the outside because they can more easily be broken open by robbers. Solid wood doors are slightly more fire resistant because the fire has to burn through more material, however, using a steel door will increase fire resistance by a much larger margin.

TYPES OF WOOD:- 

Before we get into all of the different wood varieties and their common uses, it’s important to understand the three basic types of wood you might encounter. These three types are: softwoods, hardwoods, and engineered wood. Each of these different wood types can be used in a number of different ways.

SOLID WOOD:- 

Solid wood is a term most commonly used to distinguish between ordinary lumber and engineering wood , but it also refers to structures that do not have hollow spaces. Engineered wood products are manufactured by binding together wood  strands, fibers , or veneers with adhesives to form a  composite material . Engineered wood includes plywood , oriented stand board (OSB) and fiber board. The fact that a product is made from solid wood is often touted in advertisements. However, using solid wood has advantages and disadvantages.

COMPARISON WITH ENGINEERED WOOD:-

Perhaps the greatest advantage of solid wood is that the wood is the same all the way through, so repairs are relatively easy. Repairs to veneer are much more difficult and sometimes impossible.

Solid wood furniture is strong enough to easily satisfy all furniture applications, and it can last for centuries. Society is still questioning whether furniture made of plywood (often made from pine) can do the same. Plywood and other engineered wood products used to make furniture are typically covered with a veneer such as Cherry.

It is common today for furniture manufacturers and retailers to advertise such veneered plywood furniture as made of “wood solids with cherry veneers”. Most customers believe that to mean solid planks of less expensive woods such as poplar, etc., with expensive woods such as cherry used for veneers. However, “wood solids” is a term of art. The “wood solids” are simply plywood, or another engineered wood product.

In the USA, the Federal Trade Commission doesn’t allow furniture to be advertised as made of “solid wood” unless all exposed surfaces are in fact solid wood. Solid wood is expensive. Engineered wood (often advertised as wood solids) is not.

REFERENCE TAKEN FROM WIKIPEDIA

PAINT:-

Paint is any pigmented liquid, liquefiable, or mastic composition that, after application to a substrate in a thin layer, converts to a soild film. It is most commonly used to protect, color, or provide texture to objects. Paint can be made or purchased in many colors—and in many different types, such as watercolor or synthetic. Paint is typically stored, sold, and applied as a liquid, but most types dry into a solid. Most paints are either oil-based or water-based and each have distinct characteristics. For one, it is illegal in most municipalities to discard oil based paint down household drains or sewers. Solvents for clean up are also different for water based paint than they are for oil based paint.Water-based paints and oil-based paints will cure differently based on the outside ambient temperature of the object being painted (such as a house.) Usually the object being painted must be over 10 °C (50 °F), although some manufacturers of external paints/primers claim they can be applied when temperatures are as low as 2 °C (35 °F).

TYPES OF PAINTS:-

WATER-BASED PAINTS

The majority of wall paints sold today is water-based, primarily because of its ease of use. If your surface has been previously coated with an oil-based product, be cautious when switching to water-based paint as it may have trouble sticking. In this situation, recommends washing the surface and then roughening it all over with a medium to smooth grit sandpaper—making it clean, dry, and dull in order to prevent peeling of the new coat.

For those instances when an oil-based paint would traditionally be preferable, but you desire a water-based product, a number of companies have introduced “waterborne enamels” or “waterborne alkyds.” These paints look and behave much like oil-based options because they have good leveling qualities for a smooth finish.

Advantages of water-based paints

• doesn’t require a pre-treatment
• no mildew growth
• low VOCs (low levels of toxic emissions)
• easy cleanup with water
• quick drying
• an elastic, flexible finish resistant to cracking
• can be used on almost all surfaces
• stable color over time, doesn’t yellow or fade in sunlight

OIL-BASED PAINTS

Oil-based paint can be used on almost all surfaces, and is praised for its high durability and rich finish. Still, be cautious, as oil paint emits strong fumes that can be overwhelming, and the paint cannot be washed with water. If you choose oil paint, solvents like turpentine are necessary for washing brushes or other materials with unwanted paint on them.

Advantages of oil-based paints

• attractive gloss
• good for high-moisture rooms (ex. bathroom or kitchen)
• longer dry time (good for making fixes)
• good “leveling” (brush strokes fill themselves in to create a smooth finish)
• hard, durable finish

PAINT FINISHES

Sheen options vary by manufacturer, but share some common characteristics. As durability improves across all sheen levels with newer paints, many people are finding creative ways to mix and match them. “We’ve noticed that customers are becoming more experimental in their use of paint finish, to create real impact and texture within a scheme,” says Farrow & Ball Director Sarah Cole. “Try painting a stripe of full gloss on a matte wall in the same color to create a striking, textured look,” she suggests.

Matte paint:

• is the least reflective sheen available
• has a velvety texture
• helps hides imperfections in walls and ceilings
• offers great depth of color
• is generally considered the standard sheen for walls
• can sometimes be difficult to clean 

Eggshell and satin paint (satin is slightly glossier than eggshell):

• have some reflectivity
• offer improved durability
• are frequently used in demanding environments, like kitchen and bathrooms, where easy cleanup without a highly glossy finish is desired

Semi-gloss and gloss paint:

• great for kitchens, doors, window trim, accent walls, and bathrooms
• are the most reflective sheens
• are highly durable and stand up to multiple cleanings
• are traditionally used on baseboards, moldings, and doors
• can make a statement, but also highlight imperfections

DISTEMPER:-

This is perhaps the most economical type of painting available in the Indian market today. It can be classified as a “Whitewash” job. This term is probably deep rooted in our vocabulary as home owners whitewash their homes prior to renting it out and occupants insist on a periodic whitewash from the home owners ! The major constituents of distemper are chalk, lime, water and some coloring agents if necessary. Distemper is a water based paint.

EMULSIONS:-

This type of paint is also water based and provides a rich and Matt finish to interior walls. The differentiating factor of emulsion paints is its acrylic quality. Its composition imparts excellent durability to the painted surface and gives the walls a just painted look. It washable and most stains can be removed easily by wiping with a cloth dipped in a mild soap solution. The paint film is also fungus and mildew resistant.

SOLVENT BASED PAINTS(LUSTRE/ENAMEL):-

Solvent based paints – Lustre paints, Enamel paints and oil paints all come under the category of solvent based paints. They cannot be pre-mixed with water. Oil based paints take a longer time to dry and often produce strong odors which are irritating and sometimes even toxic in nature. The advantage with these paints is that they really last long and produce rich and desiring effects on the wall.

FUNCTIONAL PAINTS

Functional paints are not just decorative paints, they have specific functions like eliminating insects, bacteria, fungus or dust mites. Functional paints have an in-built, safe and non-toxic mechanism to humans but fatal to insects, fungus, bacteria or Dustmites.

TYPES OF FINISHES

Paints, when dried on the surface, produce films with varying degree of sheen. This ranges from Matt finishes which have no sheen, to high gloss finishes.

Matt

A matt finish has the lowest level of gloss.

Egg Shell or Satin

This finish has silk like gloss, explains the name Satin finish.

Semi-Gloss

This finish has more gloss than a satin finish.

Glossy

This is the finish with highest level of gloss

SNOWCEM:- 

Snowcem is a cement based paint used normally for painting exterior walls . White cement or snowcrete as it is often known is actually like grey opc except they use added chalk that gives it the white colour .

REFERENCE TAKEN FROM WIKIPEDIA

WATERPROOFING IN BUILDINGS – METHODS AND TYPES OF WATERPROOFING:-

Waterproofing in buildings is the formation of an impervious barrier over surfaces of foundations, roofs, walls and other structural members of building to prevent water penetrations through these surfaces. The building surfaces are made water-resistant and sometimes waterproof. Commonly used materials for waterproofing in building is cementitious material, bituminous material, liquid waterproofing membrane and polyurethane liquid membrane etc.

Waterproofing in buildings and structures are generally required for basement of structure, walls, bathrooms and kitchen, balconies, decks, terrace or roofs, green roofs, water tanks and swimming pools etc.

TYPES OF WATERPROOFING METHODS FOR BUILDINGS

The following waterproofing methods are commonly used in construction:

1. Cementitious Waterproofing
2. Liquid Waterproofing Membrane
3. Bituminous Membrane
4. Bituminous Coating
5. Polyurethane Liquid Membrane

1. CEMENTITIOUS WATERPROOFING METHOD

Cementitious waterproofing is the easiest method of waterproofing in construction. The materials for cementitious waterproofing is easily available from suppliers of masonry products, and they’re easy to mix and apply. This method is often used in the internal wet areas such as toilets. This method is usually a rigid or semi-flexible type waterproofing, but since it is used in internal areas such as toilets, it is not exposed to sunlight and weathering. Thus cementitious waterproofing does not go through contract and expansion process.

APPLICATIONS OF CEMENTITIOUS WATERPROOFING

Cementitious waterproofing is used in the following type of structures:

• Water Treatment Plants
• Sewage Treatment Plants
• Bridges
• Dams
• Railway & Subway Systems
• Marine Cargo Ports & Docks
• River Locks/Channels & Concrete Dykes
• Parking Structures & Lots
• Tunnels

2. LIQUID WATERPROOFING MEMBRANE METHOD

Liquid membrane is a thin coating which consists of usually a primer coat and two coats of top coats which are applied by spray, roller, or trowel. It offers more flexibility than the cementitious types of waterproofing.

The liquid cures into a rubbery coating on the wall. The elongation properties of the coating can reach as high as 280%. The durability of the waterproofing coating depends on what type of polymer the manufacturer use for the making of the liquid waterproofing. Liquid waterproofing membrane can be of spray-applied liquid membrane composed of polymer-modified asphalt. Polyurethane liquid membranes in separate grades for trowel, roller, or spray are also available from various manufacturers.

3. BITUMINOUS COATING WATERPROOFING METHOD

Bituminous coating is a type of coating used for waterproofing and flexible protective coat in accordance with its formulation and polymerization grade. Its flexibility and protection against water can be influenced by the polymer grade as well as reinforcement of fiber.

Bituminous coating is also called as asphalt coating. The most common applications of bituminous coatings include areas that are beneath screed wet. It is an excellent protective coating and waterproofing agent, especially on surfaces such as concrete foundations.

Bituminous coating is made of bitumen based materials and it is not suitable for expose to sunlight. It becomes very brittle and fragile when long exposure to the sunlight unless it is modified with more flexible material such as polyurethane or acrylic based polymers.

The flexibility of the finished products always depends on the solid content of the polymer added to the bitumen.

4. BITUMINOUS MEMBRANE WATERPROOFING METHOD

Bituminous membrane waterproofing is a popular method used for low-sloped roofs due to their proven performance. Bituminous waterproofing membrane have torch on membrane and self-adhesive membrane.

Self-adhesive compounds comprise asphalt, polymers and filler; additionally, certain resins and oils may be added to improve adhesion characteristics. The self-adhesive type has low shelf life as bonding properties of the membrane reduces with time.

Torch on membrane have exposed and covered types. Exposed membrane often has mineral granular aggregate to withstand the wear and tear of the weathering and the other types of membrane, contractor need to apply one protective screed to prevent the puncture of the membrane.

5. POLYURETHANE LIQUID MEMBRANE WATERPROOFING METHOD

Polyurethane liquid membrane method of waterproofing is used for the flat roof area and exposed to weathering. This waterproofing method is expensive.

Polyurethane Liquid Membrane can offer higher flexibility. Polyurethane is very sensitive to moisture content present, therefore before application, one has to be very careful evaluating the moisture content of the concrete slab, otherwise peeling or de-bonding of membranes may happen after some time.

The one-way slab is a slab, which is supported by parallel walls or beams, and whose length to breadth ratio is equal to or greater than two and it bends in only one direction (spanning direction) while it is transferring the loads to the two supporting walls or beams, because of its geometry.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ONE WAY SLAB AND TWO WAY SLAB

The one way and two way slab systems are the most commonly used floor system in the reinforced concrete structure. These slabs are constructed to provide flat surfaces, usually horizontal, in building floors, roofs or other types of structures. These two slab system has some basic differences. The main differences between one way slab system and two way slab system are given below.

REFERENCE TAKEN FROM CIVILTODAY.COM

SLAB:-

What is Concrete Slab?

Concrete slab, a very common and important structural element, are constructed to provide flat, useful surfaces. It is a horizontal structural component, with top and bottom surfaces parallel or near so.

The depth of a concrete slab floor is very small compared to its span. Slabs may be supported on two sides only or have beams on all four sides.

Concrete Slab Support

The concrete slab may be supported by-

• Masonry or reinforced concrete Walls
• Monolithically casted reinforcement concrete beams
• Structural steel members
• Columns
• The ground

Concrete Slab Construction

Concrete floor slabs may be in situ or prefabricated. The in situ concrete slab floor are built using form-work, which is commonly made of wooden planks & boards, plastic or steel. Usually ground slabs do not require any form-work.

Concrete Slab Reinforcement

Reinforcing steel for slabs is primarily parallel to slab surface. Straight bar reinforcement is generally used, although sometimes alternative cranked bar is used.

REFERENCE TAKEN FROM WWW.CIVILTODAY.COM

WHAT IS A NON-LOAD BEARING WALL? – FEATURES, TYPES

Definition: A wall which doesn’t help the structure to stand up and holds up only itself is known as a non-load bearing wall. This wall is also referred to as “ curtain wall ”.

Main Features: Followings are the main features of non-load bearing walls:

• A non-load bearing wall doesn’t support floor roof loads above.
• It is not a part of the structural frame system.
• Most of the time, they are interior walls whose purpose is to divide the floor into rooms.
• They are built lighter to reduce the dead load of the structure.
• One can remove any non-load bearing walls without endangering the safety of the building.
• Non-load bearing walls can be identified by the joists and rafters.
• They are not responsible for gravitational support for the property. It is cost effective.

Types of Non-Load Bearing Walls

Followings are the type of non-load bearing walls based on the used wall unit:

• Hollow Concrete Block Wall
• Facade Bricks Wall
• Hollow Bricks Wall
• Brick Walls

Brief descriptions of these types of non-load bearing walls are given below:

Hollow Concrete Block

The walls of the concrete building are made hollow. It has the advantage of great strength. It gives stability without any waste of material.

Facade Bricks

It is solid, durable and practically maintenance free. Colors do not lose their radiance in this brick. Facade bricks are ecological and sustainable.

Hollow Bricks

They are green living. They can reduce the use of heating and cooling devices. They are strong and better used. Hollow bricks are cost effective.

Brick Walls

It is an immovable block or wall made of brick. Brick walls are easy to install.

REFERENCE TAKEN FROM CIVILTODAY.COM

WHAT IS LOAD BEARING WALL ? TYPES OF LOAD BEARING WALLS

Definition: A wall which is constructed to support the above slab or other building elements in a structure is called a load-bearing wall.

Main Features: Followings are the main features of load-bearing walls:

• It is a structural element.
• It carries the weight of a house from the roof and upper floors.
• Load bearing walls transfer loads all the way to the foundation or other suitable frame members.
• It can support structural members like beams (sturdy pieces of wood or metal), slab and walls on above floors above.
• A wall directly above the beam is called a load bearing wall if it is designed to carry the vertical load.
• Load bearing walls also carry their own weight.
• This wall is typically over one another on each floor.
• Load bearing walls can be used as an interior or exterior wall .
• This kind of wall will often be perpendicular to floor joists or ridge.
• Concrete is an ideal material to support these loads.

Types of Load Bearing Walls

Followings are the types of load bearing walls:

• Precast Concrete Wall: This wall is aesthetically pleasing. The precast wall has superior strength and known for its durability. It provides excellent protection and is easy to install.
• Retaining Wall: It provides lateral support. Installing a retaining wall has many environmental benefits like reducing erosion and protecting areas from being saturated. It is also known as revetment or breast wall.
• Masonry Wall: Masonry is the most durable part of any structure. It allows for unlimited architectural expressions. They provide strength durability. Masonry wall also helps to control the temperature in indoor and out. Also, it increases the fire resistance. Lateral stiffness of the masonry wall is very low.
• Pre Panelized Load Bearing Metal Stud Walls: It is used for building exterior wall cladding. The metal can be stainless steel, copper, aluminum. It supports gravity, seismic and wind loading.
• Engineering Brick Wall: It uses double open-ended bond beam blocks. It is built using a mold. Block wall is replaced horizontally.
• Stone Wall: It is treated as a stone structure. It is kinda masonry construction. This wall provides structure to a building and encloses an area.